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15. Elaborate how proteins' initiation, elongation, and termination happen in the ribosome with suitable diagrams.

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 15.  Elaborate how proteins' initiation, elongation, and termination happen in the ribosome with suitable diagrams. answer : Introduction : Ever wonder how antibiotics kill bacteria—for instance, when you have a sinus infection? Different antibiotics work in different ways, but some attack a very basic process in bacterial cells: they knock out the ability to make new proteins. To use a little molecular biology vocab, these antibiotics block  translation . In the process of translation, a cell reads information from a molecule called a messenger RNA (mRNA) and uses this information to build a protein. Translation is happening constantly in a normal bacterial cell, just like it is in most of the cells of your body, and it's key to keeping you (and your bacterial "visitors") alive. When you take certain antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin), the antibiotic molecule will latch onto key translation molecules inside of bacterial cells and basically "stall" them. With...
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10. The central dogma of molecular biology states that the flow of information in cells is from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). How does RNA polymerase know where to start transcribing a gene and end it? Explain with a suitable diagram.

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  10.  The central dogma of molecular biology states that the flow of information in cells is from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). How does RNA polymerase know where to start transcribing a gene and end it? Explain with a suitable diagram. answer : introduction : Central Dogma: A phenomenon in which the genetic information in DNA is converted into a functional product/protein. The flow of genetic information is from DNA->RNA->Protein. Replication of DNA is defined as copying of the entire genome before the cell divides into two. Copying of information from the template DNA molecule onto a new messenger RNA molecule is called transcription. The formation of protein molecules after reading of the messenger RNA molecule is called translation. For example- a gene sequence on the DNA encoding for color is transcribed into mRNA, which would be further translated into a functional protein that will phenotypically express in flower petals. RNA polymerase RNA polymerases  are e...
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BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING

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  Ancient Fermented Products 7000 BC : Sumerians/Babylonians were making beer, marking one of the earliest known uses of fermentation. 6000 BC : Wine production in Georgia. 4000 BC : Egyptians used yeast to leaven bread. 3000 BC : Babylonians produced fermented milk products. 1000 BC : Fermented soybean curd (precursor to tofu) was developed. 400 BC : Vinegar production began. Medieval and Early Modern Advances 14th Century : Development of the Orléans process for vinegar fermentation. Alcohol distillation became prominent. 17th Century : Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope, enabling the study of microbes. 19th Century Milestones Schwann and Theodor (1840) : Demonstrated that microbes are responsible for fermentation. Justus von Liebig : Proposed the chemical hypothesis of fermentation. Louis Pasteur (1857–1876) : Proved yeast drives the fermentation process. Disproved the chemical hypothesis and the theory of spontaneous generation. Hansen of Carlsberg Brewery : Isolat...
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